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Pigs, Peccaries and
Hippos Status Survey and Action Plan (1993) Chapter 5.9 Origins of Domestication and
the Pig Culture William L. R.
Oliver, Colin P. Groves, C. Roger Cox and Raleigh A. Blouch Abstract and Action Plan
Summary The long and close
association between people and pigs has crossed many biogeographic and ethnic
boundaries. It is an association which, on archaeozoological evidence, dates
back at least 40,000 years, and one which has involved the independent
domestication of at least two species of Sus,
and the carriage of these animals, or their domestic and hybrid derivatives,
to all continental land masses and a great many oceanic islands. The
resulting diversity of native and introduced forms has produced patterns of
distribution and interrelationships of great confusion. Some of these forms
are of potential importance in terms of genetic resources for the further
domestication of one of man's major sources of animal protein, and some are
of considerable anthropological interest in terms of the ethnic origins and
the cultural integrity of various surviving tribal societies. However, many
formerly important cultural and economic relationships between people and
their pigs are breaking down as other economic options become available or
religious prejudice fosters change in values. Nonetheless, pigs are still
among the most important of all domestic animals, particularly in Asia where
the annual consumption of pork exceeds that of all other domestic species put
together. The priority recommendations
for future research on these topics include assessing the systematic
affinities of selected feral and domestic pig populations, their current
conservation status, and their continuing cultural and economic importance to
local people, particularly those aboriginal (or early immigrant) groups with
whom they may share a common geographic origin. The presently perceived
priorities for this research are all in S. E. Asia, most notably the Andaman
and Nicobar Islands, the Lesser Sunda Islands, the Moluccas and the Mentawi
and associated islands off west Sumatra. Assistance should also be provided
for the development and implementation of management recommendations for the
preservation of representative populations of: a) any seriously threatened endemic
wild pigs; and b) ancient domestic or feral populations of known or potential
genetic importance, or of demonstrable economic or cultural importance to
local people. Introduction There has been a
long and close association between people and pigs. It is an association
which has crossed many biogeographic and ethnic boundaries and, in some
South-east Asian tribal societies, has even acquired a ritualised symbolism
of great cultural importance. It is an association which positively
facilitated the early expansion of settling peoples, and enormously extended
the range of the few, variously derived pigs which they carried with them. It
is an association which is essentially, but seldom simply, exploitative, and
one which is complicated by considerations of relevance to many different
disciplinary standpoints. The pigs, perhaps more than any other animal, are a
great many things to a great many people. The confounding of
human attitudes towards pigs is as apparent in the developed countries as in
the less developed countries. Either way, they are as much a reflection of
changing lifestyles as of opposing or ambivalent interests. Wild pigs which
were formerly highly valued as a source of food are later regarded as pests
requiring constant control for their depredations on crops, pasture, other
livestock and native wildlife species. However, their otherwise desirable
eradication, even if practical, may be vigorously opposed by subsistence or
recreational hunters or the profitable interests of game meat industries.
Equally, the continued demand for wild pork products may have strongly
positive benefits in controlling the numbers of introduced pigs, whilst
having a strongly negative impact on the distribution and numbers of some of
the native wild pigs, which continue to represent a primary source of meat
for some surviving hunting cultures. Other factors may be
involved. The recent decline of the endemic bearded pigs (Sus. b. barbatus) in those parts of
Borneo which have been extensively deforested by logging companies, led
MacKinnon (1981a) to refer to the extreme bitterness of the Segama villagers
in Sabah who were thereby deprived of a resource on which they have been
heavily dependent for hundreds of years. In the Andaman Islands (Bay of
Bengal), a dwarf feral pig is one of the staple dietary items of the
aboriginal negritos, but these animals have been drastically reduced in
numbers, partly through widescale destruction of the Andaman forests and
partly by over-hunting by more recent immigrant groups from the Indian
sub-continent who compete directly with the negritos for this and other
resources (Oliver & Brisbin, this vol.). The Andaman Negritos
have in some ways amongst the simplified cultures of all surviving
hunter-gatherers. Their origins, and those of the pigs their ancestors
presumably carried with them, are obscure, but their dependence on these
animals dates back at least 2,000 years to judge from their subfossil remains
in the earliest midden deposits found to date (P. Dutta, pers. comm.). Now, however,
the future of these people, not to mention their pigs, is one of the most
pressing of many conservation issues appertaining to these islands. Two of
the four recognised groups, the Onges and the Andamanese, are now so reduced
in numbers that their future survival is in doubt. Some of the few remaining
Onges now keep domestic pigs, whereas the other tribes, the Jarawa and the
Sentinelese, have always resisted contact with outsiders and are still
dependent on the feral pigs as a basic resource. H. Abdulali (pers. comm.)
has therefore suggested that the decline of these animals should be viewed as
a matter of the greatest concern as..."their possible elimination would
hasten that of the people too". However, while the evident decline of
the negrito groups is linked to factors resulting in a corresponding decline
in the feral pig population, it might be more realistic to suppose that the
survival of these pigs will ultimately depend on the outside recognition and
enforcement of the territorial prerogative and cultural integrity of the
aboriginal peoples. The Origins of Domestication The origins of human
exploitation of pigs can be traced to the midden deposits of some of the
earliest hunting cultures. In caves in southern Sulawesi, the midden remains of
the Sulawesian warty pig (S. celebensis),
followed by those of the babirusa (Babyrousa
babyrussa), are again more numerous than any other species (MacKinnon,
1981b). Human remains c. 40,000 years B.P. found in the Niah Caves in Sarawak
were associated with large numbers of pig bones and teeth. The bearded pig (S. barbatus) was the most commonly
eaten large mammal (Cranbrook, 1979). Today, these pigs are still the most
widely consumed wild animal in this part of Borneo, providing approximately
32,000 tonnes of carcass meat a year which is sufficient to supply nearly
half the total annual protein requirement for Sarawak's 1.4. million human
population (Caldecott and Hyaoi, 1985). The importance of
the pig as a primary source of animal protein naturally resulted in its early
domestication, and it is now amongst the most abundant and widely distributed
of all domestic animals. There is evidence that local wild pigs were
independently domesticated in Europe, in Asia Minor, the Far East (including
Japan) and in various parts of South-east Asia (Zeuner, 1963; Herre, 1969;
Eusebio, 1980; Ma, 1980; Groves, 1981). The remains of early domestic pigs
are sometimes associated with those of wild pigs which were still hunted, and
differences between clinal variants of the wild pigs have been related to
differences between the early domesticates of these regions. In Europe and
the Near East, in places as scattered as Jarmo in north-eastern Iraq, Jericho
in Jordan, and several sites in southern Greece, the earliest records of
domestic pigs date back to the first appearance of permanent settlements in
c. 8,500 years B.P. (Clutton-Brock, 1987). It has often been assumed that
these remains represent the earliest evidence of the domestication of these
animals, but it is possible that their ancestry is older in the Far East and
in South-east Asia. White and Allen (1980), for example, cited the evidence
of 'fossilised' pig wallows to suggest that pigs had been domesticated in the
Far East as early as 11,000 years B.P., though other interpretations (such as
the planting of water-loving root crops) have been placed on the origin of
similar wallows in the 9,000 B.P. deposits in the Wahgi Valley, New Guinea
(J. Golson, pers. comm.). Similar doubts have also been placed on Solheim's
(1972) suggestion that pigs were first domesticated in Thailand as early as
12,000 years B.P., and the remains of these animals in the earliest midden
deposits in New Guinea (c. 10,000 years B.P.) refer to individual teeth which
are easily trodden down into deeper layers (M.-J. Mountain, pers. comm.). Whatever the
antiquity of such remains, there is no doubt that pigs were independently
domesticated in different parts of the world. In New Guinea, for instance,
the so-called 'Sus papuensis' - are
almost certainly a hybrid swarm of S.
scrofa vittatus x S. celebensis derivation, which were introduced by
human agency (Groves, 1981). It is not yet clear whether the antecedents of
these animals were carried as a hybrid form or whether they have hybridised
on New Guinea following the early, separate introductions of domestic or
feral derivatives of each of these species. However, the former hypothesis is
actually more likely, since there are other populations of hybrid feral pigs
in the Moluccas which are practically indistinguishable from the New Guinea
pigs, as well as apparently pure-bred derivatives of each of these species on
some other islands in this Group, and in the Lesser Sunda chain of islands. The origins and
systematic affinities of some of these introduced pig populations are also of
potential anthropological interest in terms of tracing the origins and ethnic
relationships of the various tribal groups whose ancestors often carried pigs
with them. Such considerations are less esoteric than they might appear in
view of our greatly improved understanding of the distribution and
interrelationships of the genus Sus
in South-east Asia. A case in point is the recent hypothesis, based on
linguistic comparisons, that the ethnically aberrant tribal peoples inhabiting
the islands of Simeulue and Nias off western Sumatra, were most closely
related to the Buginese or other southern Sulawesi groups (W. Foley, pers.
comm.). The evidence for this has been strongly reinforced by Groves' (1981)
revelation that the equally 'out-of-place' feral pigs on these islands were
of S. celebensis stock (Groves,
1981). The ‘Pig Cultures’ Whilst it is often
necessary to rely on archaeozoological evidence to interpret the history of
domestication, its development and cultural implications may be more clearly
assessed from the relationships between these animals and some of the
surviving tribal cultures. In many parts of South-east Asia, various kinds of
wild pigs are still among the most important sources of animal protein. In
parts of Borneo, for instance, S.
barbatus remains relatively abundant and may be seasonally present in
thousands. These pigs are simply hunted by hill tribals who do not practise
domestication, although an introduced S.
scrofa domesticate is one of the most commonly kept animals in some of
the settled coastal communities. Nonetheless, Banks (1931) reported that the
nomadic Punan occasionally kept tame bearded pigs which they had caught as
orphans while hunting. This habit of raising wild piglets can also be seen on
Buru and Seram amongst settled communities who do not keep truly domesticated
pigs but who frequently hunt the introduced celebensis and scrofa x
celebensis pigs (respectively) with bows and spears. On Siberut, a
similarly introduced, and barely modified scrofa
pig runs feral, but is regularly fed and lured into cage traps whenever
required for eating. In New Guinea and the Nicobar Islands, domesticated pigs
are kept and fed, although feral pigs are still hunted and are prized for
their meat. As a primary
economic resource, pigs, whether wild or domestic, have sometimes acquired a
ritualistic symbolism of great cultural importance in many tribal societies.
On Bawean and Buru, the skulls of wild pigs are revered as trophies and they
are hung from longhouses in Siberut. Omens are read from their intestines and
strict rules govern who eats which part of each pig. Such aspects of the
culture are also reminiscent of human cannibalism, with the general
recognition that the human flesh is most like that of the pig (MacKinnon,
1981b). In Borneo, the flesh and other parts of the pig are of great
importance in many traditional customs, and are often linked with lore and
ceremony of great antiquity (Medway, 1973). Pig jaws are displayed as hunting
trophies - symbols of the prowess of the hunter and a tally of the number of
pigs killed - and are often buried with the owner on his death. On the island
of Seram they are buried before the start of each new period of hunting,
which may be prompted by the death of one of the dogs or the breakage of a
bow or spear. The prominent display of pig jaws is also believed to deter
pilferers, and even to deflect evil spirits which are reputed to be afraid of
pigs. The importance of
the pig is also reflected in the traditional customs of peoples who practise
domestication. In the Nicobar Islands, Mathur (1967) has described how pigs:
...."occupy an exalted place in the sentiments of the people, who feel
very much when any pig is even slightly injured". The Nicobarese dearly
love their pigs, and even compose songs in their praise. Nevertheless, the
eating of pork is essential on all festive occasions and during
convalescence. Pigs are regarded as symbols of wealth and status, and are
given or imposed as fines in the settlement of disputes. The Nicobarese also
hunt feral pigs, which are not only considered prize trophies, but they are
used for the traditional practice of 'pig-fighting'. The latter is both a
sport and a test of valour in which a tethered (and usually mildly
intoxicated) wild pig is supposed to be grasped by its ears. The dog, as well as
the pig, is closely interwoven with the culture of some of the Pacific
Islanders, since both have been the most important suppliers of meat for
thousands of years. Orphaned piglets, like puppies, are sometimes nursed by
the women, and may attain the status of pets. They are raised with great care
and given or exchanged as gifts or as bride price. In Vannatu (formerly, New
Hebrides), Baker (1929) recorded that pigs were the standard currency of the
people and that a man's wealth, and hence his status, could be measured by
the number of pigs that he owned or could extort from others through his
ability to pretend he possessed magical powers. Harris (1977) described how
the Marang people in the Western Highlands of Papua New Guinea raise pigs as
members of their families, and that the men put a higher value on their pigs
than on their wives. Pigs are often kept more for the purposes of ceremonial
rituals and for trade than as a source of food. However, they are also
sacrificed to the ancestors and eaten on all-important occasions (Harris,
1977). About every twelve years each Marang clan also holds a year-long
festival or 'kaiko', which includes a massive slaughter of pigs followed by
several months of fighting with neighboring tribes. After a number of cycles
of battles and feasting, in which the pigs are sacrificed to placate the
ancestors and succor the warriors, the supply of adult pigs dries up and
fighting ceases for several years, until a new herd of pigs is reared for the
next kaiko (Rappaport, 1968). Pigs also play a
crucial role in the ceremonial exchange systems between neighboring clans in
New Guinea. An outstanding example of this is the 'tee' of the Tombena-Enga
people, which Feil (1987) described as: "..perhaps the most elaborate
and highly developed system in terms of the number of distinct communities
involved and their interlocking dependence, in its geographical extent, and
its organizational rules and requirements". With adjoining groups, more
than 200,000 people may be involved in the Enga tee which, as Feil suggested,
might be more appropriately referred to as the 'mena (or 'pig') tee', because
it gives pigs the highest, almost sole, exchange value. Thus, pigs are needed
for virtually every presentation in the Enga tee: to obtain wives, to
compensate enemies and allies, and to achieve personal power and prestige
(Feil, 1976). People do not eat all their own pigs in the Highlands of New
Guinea because: .."by giving pigs to other men links between men are
created and structures of social organization evolve" (Rubel &
Rosman, 1978). The pig culture is
deep-rooted and is as strongly developed amongst the Proto-Malays and Malays
as it is among Papuans and Melanesian peoples (MacKinnon, 1981b). However, as
Clutton-Brock (1981) has pointed out: "The pig, more than any other
animal, has also been subject to the whims of human taste and religious
scruple." The recent spread of Islam has now weakened the pig-culture in
many areas to the point where wild pigs are actively persecuted as
agricultural pests rather than being esteemed, even revered, as a basic
resource. In Java, where the human population is now predominantly Muslim,
the native warty pig S. v. verrucosus
and the sympatric Indonesian wild boar or banded pig S. s. vittatus are shot or poisoned as vermin, and captive
animals in zoological gardens have sometimes been spat at or stoned by the
visiting public. On Sumba, Sumbawa and Flores, feral pigs originally
introduced as domesticates or released for hunting are now poisoned as
vermin, although their meat may soon form the basis for a canning industry
for export to Japan. In 1954, a coastal Muslim community in Borneo even
declared war on a hill tribe who had 'polluted' their water supply with the
blood of bearded pigs they had killed upstream (J. MacKinnon, pers. comm.).
Tension between the Muslims and groups of differing religious persuasion in
Borneo led McNeely and Wachtel (1988) to suggest that these animals separate
the people of this island more effectively than any artificial boundary. Such
changing attitudes, however, are as much a reflection of changing lifestyles
as an expression of religious prejudice. As earlier hunting cultures are
transformed to an economy based largely on agriculture, the value of wild
pigs as a resource is likely to be offset by their depredations on the crops
of the subsistence farmer. Contrarily, the adaptability and prolificacy of
the pigs, particularly domestic pigs, is certain to ensure their continued
economic importance as one of the principal sources of animal protein. This
is especially true in Asia where, for example, the annual consumption of pork
exceeds 20 million tonnes per year, an amount greater than the total
consumption of all other domesticated species put together (FAO, 1985). Ancient Domesticates as a
Future Resource? In many areas, wild
pigs - particularly feral pigs - interbreed regularly with domestic pigs.
Indeed, in places such as the Nicobar Islands (Mathur, 1967) and the New Guinea
Highlands (Rappaport, 1968), the genetic continuity of wild and domestic pigs
is positively encouraged by the castration of domestic boars to promote their
docility. In these circumstances, domestic sows are necessarily mated by wild
boars. However, this can be a two-way process, with free-ranging domesticates
interbreeding with wild animals and they, or their progeny becoming
naturalized - often to the detriment of the genetic integrity of the wild
population (Oliver et al., this
vol.) through the introduction of domestic genes. Conversely, the
introduction of wild genes into a (often highly in-bred) domestic population
can be highly beneficial in terms of local adaptive characters or increased
heterosis. In any event, the enormous array of native and introduced, wild
and domestic pigs, often of ancient lineage and of widely varying derivation,
also represent a potentially invaluable genetic resource, as yet barely
explored, for the further domestication of these animals. This situation is
exemplified by the recent revelation that S.
celebensis is a localized progenitor of some present-day domestic and
feral forms (Groves, 1981). This has obvious implications for our better
understanding of the genetic resources available for the possible improvement
of domestic breeds, and it clearly refutes the widespread assumption that all
modern domesticates are derived from the Eurasian wild pig, S. scrofa. The recent separation of
the wild pigs of the eastern Philippines from S. celebensis to either S.
barbatus philippensis (Groves, 1981) or S. philippensis (Groves & Grubb, this vol.) is also relevant
in this context, since it may add yet another species to the list of wild
progenitors in view of Eusebio's (1980) belief that the ancient breeds of
Philippine's pigs were independently derived from the domestication of native
forms. Similarly, the suggestion of Swinhoe (1870), recently endorsed by Ma
(1980) that the Taiwanese ancient breeds are derived from local wild pigs (S. s. taivanus), offers further
presumptive evidence for an even wider genetic base amongst regional
domesticates and ferals than has been generally appreciated. It is therefore
necessary to return to Zeuner's (1963) assertion that domestic - or, rather,
artificially modified - pigs are descended from several species, as opposed
to the regionally variable species S.
scrofa (Epstein, 1971; Clutton-Brock, 1981). Leastways, this is appears
to be true among Asiatic domesticates, though most archaeozoologists hold the
view that European domestic pigs are wholly descended from S. scrofa, albeit that these were
crossed with oriental breeds of this species in the late 18th Century (J.
Clutton-Brock, pers. comm.). Unfortunately, many
of the potentially most valuable aboriginal or ancient Asiatic breeds, or their
descendant ferals, are either no longer maintained or are otherwise
threatened by genetic swamping, over-hunting or habitat destruction. As far
as is known, for instance, the aforementioned Philippine and Taiwanese native
breeds are unrepresented as feral populations, and both have become
increasingly scarce as domesticates as a result of their widespread
replacement by 'improved' (mostly ex-Chinese) breeds. Although some of the
variously derived celebensis pigs are still found in all states ranging from
domestic through hybrid-domestic and hybrid-feral, to feral and simply
introduced (i.e. unmodified) populations, some of the most interesting
populations are certainly threatened. The Simeulue pig, for example, which
had been previously considered a valid subspecies of S. scrofa or even a separate species, 'S. mimus', was felt to be so distinct that special efforts might
be justified to protect the remaining wild population (MacKinnon, 1981b;
Oliver and Brisbin, this vol.). In the light of Groves' findings, however, it
is most unlikely that this would merit high objective priority in
conservation terms, even though these pigs obviously remain as distinct in
real terms as they were before clarification of their taxonomic status.
Essentially the same situation may obtain with respect to the Andaman pigs,
where the recent acceptance of their feral status has considerably weakened
attempts to promote their effective conservation. However, these pigs remain
technically fully protected under the terms of their Schedule 1 listing in
the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972; albeit that their inclusion was
based on the hitherto mistaken belief that they were a truly endemic wild
form (M. K. Ranjitsinh, pers. comm.). Research and Conservation
Measures Proposed: An Action Plan Objectives: 1. To
promote more pure and applied research on the importance of pigs, both
culturally and economically, to indigenous people, particularly in developing
countries. 2. To
conduct field surveys in selected, critical areas, known or likely to be of
greatest interest to determining the origins/centers of dispersal of ancient
domesticates, and their present status and utilisation by local people. 3. To
examine existing hypotheses about the origins and interrelationships of
native and introduced pigs, both wild and domestic, with particular reference
to cytogenetic comparisons, mitochondrial DNA sequencing and the potential
importance of these animals as genetic resources. 4. To
develop and assist implementation of management plans to ensure the future
survival and genetic integrity of representative populations of the most
distinct and/or scientifically (including anthropologically) most interesting
and important native (wild or domestic) pig populations. Priority Projects: 1. Assess
current status, distribution and (where possible) the interrelationships
between wild pigs and aboriginal people of the Andaman Islands, with
particular reference to the threats posed to these animals and the enhanced
future protection of representative populations on each of the main islands. 2. Assess
distribution and genetic diversity of the wild and domestic pigs on the
Nicobar Islands, with particular reference to their cultural and economic
importance to the various local tribal peoples, and the identification of any
possibly surviving aboriginal stock. 3. Conduct
surveys of wild and domestic pigs in the Moluccas and associated islands,
with a view to assessing the systematic relationships of these animals, the
level and nature of their utilisation by local people, and their possible
origins and role as an early center of wild pig domestication and dispersal. 4. Conduct
surveys of wild and domestic pigs in the Lesser Sunda Islands, the Mentawi
Islands, Nias and Simeulue, with a view to re-assessing the systematic
affinities of these animals and their significance in terms of the known or
possible origins of the various ethnic groups inhabiting these islands, the
present status of any ancient feral and domestic pig populations and the
nature and level of their utilisation by local people. 5. Test
existing hypotheses about native domestic breeds being derived from local
wild pigs in the Philippines, Taiwan, India and other selected locations,
assess present status of these animals and, if necessary, assist development
and implementation of recommendations for their preservation as ancient
native breeds. 6. Conduct
archival research of records of early European maritime explorers and traders
to trace accounts of any trade in wild and domesticate pigs, particularly
between Europe and S. E. Asia from Spanish, Portuguese, Venetian and Dutch
sources during the 14th - 16th Centuries. Acknowledgements: Dr. Juliet
Clutton-Brock and Dr. Alastair Macdonald both provided helpful comments on
earlier drafts of this text, whilst an unpublished review of the status of
wild pigs in Indonesia (1981) by Dr. John MacKinnon provided much of the
original impetus for this chapter. Their contribution, and that of the Jersey
Wildlife Preservation Trust during literature research, is gratefully
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Animals. Thames and Hudson, London. |
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Introduced and Feral Pigs |